Middle Childhood: Evaluation of Development and Milestones

Middle Childhood: Evaluation of Development and Milestones These dimensions are not separate, they overlap consistently, for instance, can strongly influence another. Writing words, for an example, requires physical development (sub-category: fine motor skills) but it also requires language which falls under a part of the cognitive development. This essay discusses the developmental period of middle childhood (usually defined as ages 6 to about 12), addresses the milestones faced for this age group. It considers the theorists that have contributed frameworks and a deeper understanding in regards to human development and aging. Furthermore, an analysis of the environmental influences that foster typical middle childhood development shall be provided using the Bronfenbrenners model and then examines how conditions such as Auditory Processing Difficulties, might impact the development for an individual. Humans experience numerous periods of development throughout their lifecycle. Due to this, developmental stages are commonly defined as milestones. These are acknowledged as skills gained or age-specific tasks that are achieved within a stage identified usually by an age range, although these age specifications are generally used as guidelines to assist in identification of potential developmental delays as well. In modern western cultures, these identified stages in life are typically categorised into eight periods consisting of the following titles: Prenatal period, infancy, preschool period, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood. Middle childhood, however, is around the identified age where children obtain an access to new settings, they witness pressures that present them with distinctive developmental encounters. Having achieved prior life milestones, the child is now moving into expanding roles and environments. Milestones typically associated with this stage is the development of foundational skills for building social relations and the preparation for adolescence beginning with entry into a school system and is denotes growing intellectual skills as well as the physical ability (Berk, 2014). For example, in the physical domain (domain interest lays in body size/systems, physical health, and brain development) the developmental growth continues at a firm rate but characteristics for this age group consist of youths mastering physical skills and exhibiting better command of large muscles (gross motor than fine motor) in addition to exhibiting better balance and coordination. Psychosocial development (pers onal and interpersonal aspects) would be an increased interaction with that of same-sex peers (Burton, 2015). Developmental Theorists and their Outlined Milestones Throughout history, theories have developed a model for understanding a persons thoughts, emotions, and general behavior. However, four major theoretical viewpoints are considered when developing an understanding of human development: The psychoanalytical viewpoint (established by Sigmund Freud and reviewed by Erik Erikson), the learning perspective (developed by Pavlov, Watson, Skinner and Bandura), the cognitive viewpoint (advanced by Piaget, Vygotsky) and the systems theory approach (exemplified by Bronfenbrenner and Gottlieb). Each theory produced emphases on a particular facet within development. When Sigmund Freud devised a psycho-sexual theory of development the domain of interest was in regards to how the mind works and what causes particular behaviors in individuals.This model proposed a sequence of psychosexual points, highlighting the possibility of problematic experiences leading to fixations or regressions (Burton et al., 2015). The characterization for middle childhood was known as the latency stage, it places importance on privacy and understanding their body.This stage is considered the time where sexual energy is at rest (quiet libido) between the early childhood and adolescence; the youths psychic energy began to narrow its focus primarily on social and cognitive growth (Sigelman Rider, 2009). This aspect of Freuds design is also captured by Eriksons emphasis on the development of a childs sense of industry. Erik Erikson established a social-developmental theory emphasising the social and emotional facets of human development (Sigelman Rider, 2009). For each of the eight stages developed, there was an identified milestone that exists for healthy personality development to occur. Industry versus inferiority stage (6 to 12 years) was considered the point where a child obtained a sense of self-worth from involvement.Children must master significant social and academic skills while matching their peers efforts otherwise, risk feeling inferior (Burton et al., 2015). It was the point where either the child established a sense of industry (providing a sense of purpose and confidence in their ability to be successful) or a sense of inferiority (cannot accomplish what is expected). Burton, Westen, and Kowalski (2015) outlines Ivan Pavlovs published work; his learning research regarding the salivation response in dogs began known as classical conditioning. Although bothJ.Watson and B.F.Skinner followed on from the work of Pavlov they rejected the psycho-analytical theory expressed by Freuds and explained his theory through the usage of learning principles establishing a learning perspective (behaviourism). This emphasised that behaviour is influenced by environmental stimuli and highlights a childs experiences. Furthermore, it suggests a mind is originally a blank slate gradually being moulded, while development is considered a response to positive and negative reinforcement. While Watson placed focused on the role of classical conditioning (the understanding of emotional responses) in his work, Skinner highlighted operant conditioning involving reinforcement and punishment (Sigelman Rider, 2009). The behavioural child development theory differs to the other th ree major viewpoints as it does not consider internal thoughts or feelings. Jean Piagets developmental theory focused on predictable cognitive (thinking) stages, particularly in regards to children. He described how they think and learn about the world they are currently observing; their mental operations. This was done through the usage of terms to describe processes (schemata, adaptation, assimilation, and accommodation) (Sigelman Rider, 2009). These processes occur during each stage of development and characteristics of thought among children were used to form various stages to identify milestones. The school-age (6-12 years) were identified as the concrete operational stage: the child is capable of mature thought when allowed to manipulate and see objects (Burton et al., 2015). The capability to solve practical, real-world problems is present. In addition, school-age children tend to be able to classify objects per several features, ordering in an arrangement of a single dimension (e.g. size) though egocentric thought tends to decline during this stage (Shaffer Kepp, 2009). Thus, when considering Piagets view, the significant psychological accomplishments in regards to middle childhood underlines in the intellectual competence field. The role of social interaction in learning was emphasised in a sociocultural theory of cognitive development, developed by Lev Vygotsky. His model proposes children collaborate and strive together on tasks to enhance their levels of understanding and development (Sigelman Rider, 2009; Shaffer Kepp, 2009). Humans are described as social creatures and being social beings childrens minds are developed through guided participation. Thus, Vygotskys zone of proximal development is a framework that stretches from sole performance to collaborative cooperation (Burton et al., 2015). Environmental factors directly impact development in ones lifespan. Unhygienic living situations (home environment) can harm health and developmental growth for children, while isolation can hinder social development.When little mental or sensory stimulation is provided within a childs environment, cognitive development can delay. The contribution between the innateness of genes based behaviours and the environmental factors areoften discussed in developmental psychology and referred to as the nature vs. nurture debate (Burton et al., 2015). Urie Bronfenbrenners model, The Ecological Systems Theory, suggests that there are different environments encountered across ones lifespan that may influence behaviour.This theory focuses on the interactions and influences of the outside environment on human development (Ben Price, 2011). It differs from the previous theories discussed prior in this essay due to the emphasis on outer world (community, school, and political systems) influence. Bronfenbrenner (1979) suggests that all surroundings need to be measured when identifying a childs development defining environment as a set of nested structures each inside the next like a set of Russian dolls. Therefore, the developing person is said to be at the centre of (embedded) in a system of five socially organised subsystems, all contained within the next. This theory outlines impacts on a childs cognitive, social and emotional development. The microsystem (first layer) represents the most influence on a childs development. Consisting of all experiences and impacts directly affecting the immediate environment of a child including family, school, peers (Berk, 2007). The interactions at this level are considered bidirectional relationships (an impact in two directions).For example, while children are being impacted by the people in their microsystems, their biologically and socially influenced traits (habits, capabilities, temperaments) effect behaviour of the company (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Of the entire ecological systems theory, this is the most influential layer in regards to directly impacting a childs life development. The mesosystem (second layer) consists of the exchanges between different parts of a childs microsystem, it depicts the interrelations among such microsystems as peer groups or schools (Berk, 2015).Bronfenbrenner (1979) argues that when a childs environment contains supportive links between microsystems that development is optimized. For example, a childs ability to learn with an educational institution would depend on the quality of instruction that the teachers provide.Therefore, this is the layer where a childs independent microsystems do not necessarily function independently, but instead, asserting an impact upon another one. If there is trouble with interactions in one microsystem this will potentially affect others (butterfly effect). Although the prior layers are the most direct and influential in regards to a developing child, the following still impact development; the exosystem refers to settings in which the person is affected but not an active contributor. It indirectly influences experiences and is the third level of Bronfenbrenners ecological systems theory. In addition, the level, macrosystem, focuses on cultural values, laws, health ways that are affected by interactions with another. The final layer (chronosystem) reflects the dimension of time regarding the childs environment and can be external or internal factors as it consists of the experiences that have been undertaken during ones lifetime (Berk, 2007). This theory emphases influences (social, political and economic contexts) in which development occurs and been considered culturally sensitive. It acknowledges the presence of mutual interactions between, for example, a child and its various settings (Berk, 2007).To summarise and illustrate this theory, a child is placed in a centre of concentric circles representing a variety of different factors which all influence. Each of these layers of circles inexorably interacts with and influences each other including, every aspect of the individuals life.How each aspect interacts with the child will influence growth; the more nurturing these relationships founded, the better the child will be able to grow (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).However, a childs biology (genetic and influenced personality traits), plays part in affecting how others treat them; when a change/conflict occurs in one of the systems, it can produce changes in the other systems too. Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) is identified as a neurological defect that impacts how the brain processes spoken language. It is an inability to process sound meanings from surrounding environments (Lucker, n.d.).The central nervous system (CNS) is a vast system, known to be responsible for various functions (memory, attention, language etc.) APD in the broadest sense refers to how the CNS uses auditory information although APD individuals typically have regular hearing, it is the struggle to process and make meaning of sounds/verbal information, particularly when in presence of background noises (Bidwell, 2016). Poor expressive and receptive communication can arise due to this and generally leads to the deterioration of behaviour. Other behavioural indicators found to occur with APD children include mishearing/discrimination of sound difficulties, problematic direction following (predominantly multi-step), slow responsiveness to questions/instructions and short-term memory issues (Lucker, n.d.). In addition, an insensitivity to subtle properties of sound (pitch, volume, rhythm and stress) are all considered symptoms of APD. Formal diagnoses of auditory processing difficulties cannot be made by an audiologist until the age of 7 years when the system has maturated (Auditory Processing Disorder, 2015). Although, by 5 years speech-language pathologists, audiologists and/or psychologists are able to administer a sound based screening test in addition to auditory based language tests to determine if a child is at risk or showing signs of APD. A 3-5% estimation was apparent for children to be affected, worldwide (Mountjoy, 2002). Misdiagnosis/Testing: APD is often confused with other disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disabilities, social delays, impairments in language or cognitive deficits etc. Multidisciplinary approaches are considered an accurate means for diagnosing this disorder due to the similarity in symptoms of other disorders (Bellis, 1997). This approach generally involves a child being assessed by an audiologist in addition to an educational psychologist and a Speech and Language Pathologist. Commonly misidentified most as an attention deficit due to similar types of behavioural problems consists with disorders such as ADHD or attention deficit disorder (ADD). Although coping mechanisms used for a child with attention deficit will not be effective for a child suffering from auditory processing difficulties (Musiek, Frank E., et al., 2010). Most APD children have a difficult time staying focused due to the inability to understand what is being communicated to them or they are bothered by the environmental background that most can block out. Possible Impacts and Long-Term Consequences: As discussed previously the concept of individuality is developing during middle childhood. Children can develop skills that enable them to work around challenges presented with APD, if left undiagnosed or unmanaged, however, lifelong difficulties become apparent. Effects of this disorder are individualised and the severity varies, as there are several categorises in regards to auditory processing issues: Auditory discrimination, auditory figure-ground discrimination, auditory memory and auditory sequencing; precise auditory skills may be needing to be developed for a child to progress (Bellis, 1997). Although, APD does impact all aspects of someones lifespan development: physical, cognitive and socioemotional. Language and communication are vital for a childs development and for life in general, competence in these areas enable bridges to be formed for engaging in social relationships, behaviour and emotion regulation.Language development is interrelated with social development when a child experiences difficulties with language (whether due to APD or otherwise) it can cause problematic relationships (with peers or parents for example) (Musiek, Frank E., et al., 2010).Adequate communicate is a necessity for children as expression of their feelings, thoughts and needs are vital in establishing, forming deep connections and preserving friendships, especially at this stage of development. Other areas of impact include academics, often children with APD experience complications developing reading and writing (language) skills. Developing phonemic awareness and vowel knowledge is a milestone often encountered with children associated with this disorder. Syllables that are not emphasised or contain similar sounds (e.g. free instead of three) may continue to cause complications long after other classmates have learned to correct themselves (Lucker, n.d. Auditory Processing Australia, 2016). This can invoke lowering self-esteem and a sense of inferiority among peers. Support for APD Children Direct intervention for APD (e.g. auditory training) combined with improved environmental settings and enhanced communication techniques in order to support and assist children can compensate for the difficulties experienced. Compensatory strategies, for example, would enable a child to recognise circumstances where their listening will be challenged and counter-tactics that could be used in such circumstances (Bidwell, 2016 Bellis, 1997). Bidwell (2016) proposes changes in ones environment can provide support to individuals with APD enabling more effective listening and learning. For example, eliminating environmental disruptions, say in an educational atmosphere (classroom) provides support because anything that captures the childs focus would minimised/decreased. Other probable distractions with classroom situations include background noise and visual clutter. In addition, there are general strategies that can be supportive for a child experiencing auditory processing difficulties: educating speakers on effective methods for communicating with the child (e.g. minimal language complexity and clear talking), or direct therapy for a type of impaired auditory functions are two. Recommendations, however, should be customised for each child, taking into consideration their personal and environmental factors (Bellis, 1997). In conclusion, the lifespan is across the age range, topics of importance vary among the periods of development (e.g. middle childhood) and the milestones faced are dependent on these stages. Major developmental theorists and theories were developed to establish an understanding of how we as humans change over time. In addition, this essay outlined the environmental influences that foster for typical development within the stage of middle childhood and examined how the condition of auditory processing difficulties might impact development for an individual.      Ã‚   References Auditory Processing Australia. (2016). Auditory Processing In the classroom. Retrieved January 2, 2017, from Auditory Processing, http://www.auditoryprocessing.com.au/computer-tablet-based-interventions-2/ Auditory Processing Disorder. (2015). CAPD central Auditory processing disorder. Retrieved January 2, 2017, from APD -Auditory Processing Disorder, http://auditoryprocessingdisorder.com.au/capd/ Ben Price (2011, October 27). Bronfenbrenners ecological systems. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjhDYR1NbZYfeature=youtu.be Bellis, T. (1997). Understanding Auditory Processing Disorders in Children. Retrieved December 29, 2016, from American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/disorders/understand-apd-child.htm Berk, L.E. (2014). Development through the lifespan, (6th ed), Pearson, Boston, MA. Berk, L. E. (2007). Infants, children, and adolescents (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Bidwell, V. (2016). The parents guide to specific learning difficulties: Information, advice and practical tips. United Kingdom: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Burton, LJ, Westen, D, Kowalski, R 2015, Psychology: 4th Australian and New Zealand edition, John Wiley Sons, Brisbane, Australia Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design (3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lucker, J. What is APD? Retrieved December 27, 2016, from National Coalition of Auditory Processing Disorders, http://www.ncapd.org/What_is_APD_.html Mountjoy, A. (2002). What is APD? Retrieved January 3, 2017, from APD support UK, http://apdsupportuk.yolasite.com/ Musiek, Frank E., et al. American Academy of Audiology Clinical Practice Guidelines: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Management of Children and Adults with Central Auditory Processing Disorder. 2010. Web. http://audiology-web.s3.amazonaws.com/migrated/CAPD%20Guidelines%208-2010.pdf_539952af956c79.73897613.pdf Shaffer, D. R., Kipp, K. (2009). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence (9th ed.). Boston, MA, United States: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Sigelman, C.K., Rider, E.A. (2009). Lifespan human development (6th ed.). Wadsworth: Belmont, CA. EDC1100 Written Assignment Marking Criteria and Feedback Sheet Student Name: _Teianee-Kai Breznikar________________________________Marker Name: __________________________________________________ CRITERIA HD Outstanding A Advanced B Well developed C Satisfactory F Poor to Very Poor 1. Description of typical physical, cognitive, and psycho-social developmental milestones for identified developmental period. Demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of the physical, cognitive, and psycho-social of the identified developmental period. There are no gaps or misunderstandings. Demonstrates a very good understanding of the physical, cognitive, and psycho-social of the identified developmental period. There are a few minor gaps only. Demonstrates a well-developed understanding of the physical, cognitive, and psycho-social of the identified developmental period. There are some gaps and/or minor misunderstandings. Demonstrates developing understanding of the physical, cognitive, and psycho-social of the identified developmental period. There are many gaps and/or minor misunderstandings. Demonstrates limited to no understanding of the physical, cognitive, and psycho-social of the identified developmental period. There are many gaps and/or minor misunderstandings. Lacks satisfactory breadth and/or many fundamental misunderstandings. The work does not meet the standard for a pass. No work submitted/ no response/ irrelevant response. 10-9 8 7 6-5 4-1 0 2. Analysis of the environmental interactions that shape physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development for the identified developmental period. Presents a balanced and exhaustive analysis of the environmental systems that shape physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development for the identified developmental period. Presents a mostly balanced and thorough analysis of most of the environmental systems that shape physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development for the identified developmental period. There are a few minor gaps in the analysis. Discusses many of the environmental systems that shape physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development for the identified developmental period. There is some balance to the analysis, but further analysis of some environmental systems was required. Discusses some of the environmental systems that shape physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development for the identified developmental period. There are many gaps in the analysis. The analysis lacks satisfactory breadth in terms of the environmental systems that shape physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development for the identified developmental period. The work does not meet the standard for a pass. No work submitted/ no response/ irrelevant response. 10-9 8 7 6-5 4-1 3. Analysis of an atypical developmental condition, and its influence on the physical, cognitive and psycho-social development for the identified developmental period. Presents an exhaustive analysis of how the atypical condition affects physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development. Provides a comprehensive set of recommendations to support an individual with the condition for the specified developmental period. Provides a thorough analysis of how the atypical condition affects physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development. Provides a practical set of recommendations to support an individual with the condition for the specified developmental period. There are a few minor gaps in the analysis and/or recommendations. Provides a good analysis of how the atypical condition affects physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development. Provides some recommendations to support an individual with the condition for the specified developmental period. There are several gaps and/or misunderstandings. Provides some analysis of how the atypical condition affects physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development. Provides few recommendations to support an individual with the condition for the specified developmental period. There are many gaps and/or misunderstandings. The analysis lacks satisfactory breadth in terms of how the atypical condition affects physical, cognitive, and psycho-social development. Recommendations to support an individual with the condition are limited or irrelevant. No work submitted/ no response/ irrelevant response. 10-9 8 7 6-5 4-1 0 4. Use of credible and relevant literature (all sections) Exhaustively supports all of the main points/arguments with relevant and credible literature/evidence. All main points/arguments are supported with relevant and credible literature/evidence. Supports most of the main points/arguments with relevant and credible literature/evidence but lacking in some places. Supports some of the main points/arguments with relevant and credible literature/evidence but lacking in many places. Provides little, if any, relevant or credible support for points/ arguments. The work does not meet the standard for a pass. No work submitted/ no response/ irrelevant response. 5 4 3 2.5 2-1 0 5. Literacy and written communication skills (all sections) Superb writing. Purposeful, well integrated and succinct academic writing which clearly conveys key points. No errors in vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, word choice, spelling, or organization. Very good writing. Purposeful, well integrated and succinct academic writing which clearly conveys key points. Very minor errors in vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, word choice, spelling, and/or organization which do not affect comprehension and readability. Good writing. Writing is generally academic in tone but may occasionally lack some focus, integration and/or succinctness and may be minor errors or instances of ineffective use of vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, word choice, spelling, and/or organization. Overall comprehension and readability is good. Adequate writing. May be several errors and instances of ineffective use of vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, word choice, spelling, academic tone, and/or organization which obscure meaning some of the time. Poor to very poor writing. The degree of errors in vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, word choice, academic tone, spelling, and/or organization is such that it is difficult to know what the writer is trying to express. The work does not meet the standard for a pass. No work submitted/ no response/ irrelevant response. 10-9 8 7 6-5 4-1 0 6. Application of referencing presentation style protocols (all sections) Referencing (in text and reference list) and presentation conforms to APA style and is error free. Referencing (in text and reference list) and presentation conforms to APA style but may be occasional minor formatting errors. Referencing (in text and reference list) and presentation mostly conforms to APA style but may be some errors or inconsistencies. Referencing (in text and reference list) and presentation is recognizable as APA sty